JOURNAL OF THE CZECH PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY AND THE SLOVAK PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY

Čes. slov. farm. 2017, 66(4):147-153 | DOI: 10.36290/csf.2017.022

Cholinesterase activity assays and their use in the diagnosis of various pathological states including poisoning by neurotoxic agents

Miroslav Pohanka
Fakulta vojenského zdravotnictví, Univerzita obrany, Hradec Králové

Cholinesterases are enzymes important for some nerve transmissions where the enzyme acetylcholinesterase plays a crucial role. The second enzyme, butyrylcholinesterase, is not necessary for the neurotransmission but it is involved in some detoxification reactions. A survey of literature, a discussion of diagnostic importance and the methods for an activity assay are presented in this review article. Liver failures, exposure to neurotoxic compounds, genetic dispositions are outlined here. In the field of assays, spectrophotometric, colorimetric and electrochemical tests are discussed.

Keywords: acetylcholinesterase; butyrylcholinesterase; poisoning; liver function test; pesticide; nerve agent; Alzheimer disease; pathological state

Received: June 5, 2017; Accepted: June 27, 2017; Published: April 1, 2017  Show citation

ACS AIP APA ASA Harvard Chicago Chicago Notes IEEE ISO690 MLA NLM Turabian Vancouver
Pohanka M. Cholinesterase activity assays and their use in the diagnosis of various pathological states including poisoning by neurotoxic agents. Čes. slov. farm. 2017;66(4):147-153. doi: 10.36290/csf.2017.022.
Share...
Download citation
  • BibTeX (.bib)
  • Bookends (.ris)
  • EasyBib (.ris)
  • EndNote (.enw)
  • EndNote 8 (.xml)
  • ISI WoS (.isi)
  • Medlars (.medlars)
  • Mendeley (.ris)
  • MODS (.xml)
  • Papers (.ris)
  • RefWorks (.txt)
  • RefManager (.ris)
  • RIS (.ris)
  • MS Word (.xml)
  • Zotero (.ris)
    • Open full article

    References

    1. Pohanka M. Cholinesterases, a target of pharmacology and toxicology. Biomed. Pap. Olomouc 2011; 155, 219-229. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    2. Duysen E. G., Li B., Lockridge O. The butyrylcholinesterase knockout mouse a research tool in the study of drug sensitivity, bio-distribution, obesity and Alzheimer's disease. Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol. 2009; 5, 523-528. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    3. Li B., Duysen E. G., Carlson M., Lockridge O. The butyrylcholinesterase knockout mouse as a model for human butyrylcholinesterase deficiency. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2008; 324, 1146-1154. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    4. Yuan J., Yin J., Wang E. Characterization of procaine metabolism as probe for the butyrylcholinesterase enzyme investigation by simultaneous determination of procaine and its metabolite using capillary electrophoresis with electrochemiluminescence detection. J. Chromatogr. A 2007; 1154, 368-372. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    5. Duysen E. G., Lockridge O. Prolonged toxic effects after cocaine challenge in butyrylcholinesterase/plasma carboxylesterase double knockout mice: a model for butyrylcholinesterase-deficient humans. Drug Metab. Dispos. 2011; 39, 1321-1323. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    6. Masson P., Carletti E., Nachon F. Structure, activities and biomedical applications of human butyrylcholinesterase. Protein Pept. Lett. 2009; 16, 1215-1224. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    7. Cygler M., Schrag J. D., Sussman J. L., Harel M., Silman I., Gentry M. K., Doctor B. P. Relationship between sequence conservation and three-dimensional structure in a large family of esterases, lipases, and related proteins. Protein Sci. 1993; 2, 366-382. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    8. Akoh C. C., Lee G. C., Liaw Y. C., Huang T. H., Shaw J. F. GDSL family of serine esterases/lipases. Prog. Lipid Res. 2004; 43, 534-552. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    9. Myers M., Richmond R. C., Oakeshott J. G. On the origins of esterases. Mol. Biol. Evol. 1988; 5, 113-119.
    10. Shafferman A., Kronman C., Flashner Y., Leitner M., Grosfeld H., Ordentlich A., Gozes Y., Cohen S., Ariel N., Barak D., Harel M., Silman I., Sussman J. L., Velan B. Mutagenesis of human acetylcholinesterase. Identification of residues involved in catalytic activity and in polypeptide folding. J. Biol. Chem. 1992; 267, 17640-17648. Go to original source...
    11. Lockridge O., Bartels C. F., Vaughan T. A., Wogn C. K., Norton S. E., Johnson L. L. Complete amino acid sequence of human serum cholinesterase. J. Biol. Chem. 1987; 262 549-557. Go to original source...
    12. Massoulie J., Anselmet A., Bon S., Krejci E., Legay C., Morel N., Simon S. The polymorphism of acetylcholinesterase: post-translational processing, quaternary associations and localization. Chem. Biol. Interact. 1999; 120, 29-42. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    13. Nawaz S. A., Ayaz M., Brandt W., Wessjohann L. A., Westermann B. Cation-π and π-π stacking interactions allow selective inhibition of butyrylcholinesterase by modified quinine and cinchonidine alkaloids. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2011; 404, 935-940. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    14. Pohanka M. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors: a patent review (2008 - present). Expert Opin. Ther. Pat. 2012; 22, 871-886. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    15. Johnson G., Moore S. W. The peripheral anionic site of acetylcholinesterase: structure, functions and potential role in rational drug design. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2006; 12, 217-225. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    16. Cometa M. F., Lorenzini P., Fortuna S., Volpe M. T., Meneguz A., Palmery M. In vitro inhibitory effect of aflatoxin B-1 on acetylcholinesterase activity in mouse brain. Toxicology 2005; 206, 125-135. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    17. Stepurska K. V., Soldatkin O. O., Arkhypova V. M., Soldatkin A. P., Lagarde F., Jaffrezic-Renault N., Dzyadevych S. V. Development of novel enzyme potentiometric biosensor based on pH-sensitive field-effect transistors for aflatoxin B1 analysis in real samples. Talanta 2015; 144, 1079-1084. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    18. Cavalli A., Bottegoni G., Raco C., De Vivo M., Recanatini M. A computational study of the binding of propidium to the peripheral anionic site of human acetylcholinesterase. J. Med. Chem. 2004; 47, 3991-3999. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    19. Mazzanti C. M., Spanevello R. M., Obregon A., Pereira L. B., Streher C. A., Ahmed M., Mazzanti A., Graca D. L., Morsch V. M., Schetinger M. R. Ethidium bromide inhibits rat brain acetylcholinesterase activity in vitro. Chem. Biol. Interact. 2006; 162, 121-127. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    20. Wong D. M., Greenblatt H. M., Dvir H., Carlier P. R., Han Y. F., Pang Y. P., Silman I., Sussman J. L. Acetylcholinesterase complexed with bivalent ligands related to huperzine a: experimental evidence for species-dependent protein-ligand complementarity. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003; 125, 363-373. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    21. Saxena A., Redman A. M., Jiang X., Lockridge O., Doctor B. P. Differences in active site gorge dimensions of cholinesterases revealed by binding of inhibitors to human butyrylcholinesterase. Biochemistry 1997; 36, 14642-14651. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    22. Khan I., Samad A., Khan A. Z., Habtemariam S., Badshah A., Abdullah S. M., Ullah N., Khan A., Zia-Ul-Hag M. Molecular interactions of 4-acetoxy-plakinamine B with peripheral anionic and other catalytic subsites of the aromatic gorge of acetylcholinesterase: computational and structural insights. Pharm. Biol. 2013; 51, 722-727. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    23. Axelsen P. H., Harel M., Silman I., Sussman J. L. Structure and dynamics of the active site gorge of acetylcholinesterase: synergistic use of molecular dynamics simulation and X-ray crystallography. Protein Sci. 1994; 3, 188-197. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    24. Gilson M. K., Straatsma T. P., McCammon J. A., Ripoll D. R., Faerman C. H., Axelsen P. H., Silman I., Sussman J. L. Open "back door" in a molecular dynamics simulation of acetylcholinesterase. Science 1994; 263, 1276-1278. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    25. Holtje H. D., Kjier L. B. Nature of anionic or alpha-site of cholinesterase. J. Pharm. Sci. 1975; 64, 418-420. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    26. Marrs T. C. Organophosphate poisoning. Pharmacol. Ther. 1993; 58, 51-66. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    27. Andreescu S., Marty J. L. Twenty years research in cholinesterase biosensors: from basic research to practical applications. Biomol. Eng. 2006; 23, 1-15. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    28. Yu Q. S., Holloway H. W., Luo W., Lahiri D. K., Brossi A., Greig N. H. Long-acting anticholinesterases for myasthenia gravis: synthesis and activities of quaternary phenylcarbamates of neostigmine, pyridostigmine and physostigmine. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2010; 18, 4687-4693. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    29. Venkatasubban K. S., Johnson J. L., Thomas J. L., Faug A., Cusack B., Rosenberry T. L. Steric effects in the decarbamoylation of carbamoylated acetylcholinesterases. Chem. Biol. Interact. 2005; 157-158. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    30. Yang Z. Z., Zhang Y. Q., Wu K., Wang Z. Z., Qi X. R. Tissue distribution and pharmacodynamics of rivastigmine after intranasal and intravenous administration in rats. Curr. Alzheimer Res. 2012; 9, 315-325. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    31. Tayeb H. O., Yang H. D., Price B. H., Tarazi F. I. Pharmacotherapies for Alzheimer's disease: beyond cholinesterase inhibitors. Pharmacol. Ther. 2012; 134, 8-25. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    32. Rai D. K., Sharma B. Carbofuran-induced oxidative stress in mammalian brain. Mol. Biotechnol. 2007; 37, 66-71. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    33. Bucaretchi F., Prado C. C., Branco M. M., Soubhia P., Metta G. M., Mello S. M., de Capitani E. M., Lanaro R., Hyslop S., Costa J. L., Fernandes L. C. R., Vieira R. J. Poisoning by illegal rodenticides containing acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (chumbinho): a prospective case series. Clin. Toxicol. 2012; 50, 44-51. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    34. Rampa A., Belluti F., Gobbi S., Bisi A. Hybrid-based multi-target ligands for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 2011; 11, 2716-2730. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    35. Bai D. L., Tang X. C., He X. C. Huperzine A, a potential therapeutic agent for treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Curr. Med. Chem. 2000; 7, 355-374. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    36. Liu J., Zhang H. Y., Tang X. C., Wang B., He X. C., Bai D. L. Effects of synthetic (-)-huperzine A on cholinesterase activities and mouse water maze performance. Zhongguo Yao Li Xue Bao 1998; 19, 413-416.
    37. Luo W., Li Y. P., He Y., Huang S. L., Li D., Gu L. Q., Huang Z. S. Synthesis and evaluation of heterobivalent tacrine derivatives as potential multi-functional anti-Alzheimer agents. Eur. J. Med. Chem. 2011; 46, 2609-2616. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    38. Jogani V. V., Shah P. J., Mishra P., Mishra A. K., Misra A. R. Nose-to-brain delivery of tacrine. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 2007; 59, 1199-1205. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    39. Knapp M. J., Gracon S. I., Davis C. S., Solomon P. R., Pendlebury W. W., Knopman D. S. Efficacy and safety of high-dose tacrine - a 30 week evaluation Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Dis. 1994; 8, S22-S31. Go to original source...
    40. Davis K. L., Thal L. J., Gamzu E. R., Davis C. S., Woolson R. F., Gracon S. I., Drachman D. A., Schneider L. S., Whitehouse P. J., Hoover T. M., Morris J. C., Kawas C. H., Knopman D. S., Earl N. L., Kumar V., Doody R. S. A double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter study of tacrine for Alzheimers-disease. New Engl. J. Med. 1992; 327, 1253-1259. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    41. da Silva V. B., de Andrade P., Kawano D. F., Morais P. A. B., de Almeida J. R., Carvalho I., Taft C. A., da Silva C. In silico design and search for acetylcholinesterase inhibitors in Alzheimer's disease with a suitable pharmacokinetic profile and low toxicity. Future Med. Chem. 2011; 3, 947-960. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    42. Rainer M. Galanthamine in Alzheimer's disease - A new alternative to tacrine? CNS Drugs 1997; 7, 89-97. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    43. Lilienfeld S. Galantamine - a novel cholinergic drug with a unique dual mode of action for the treatment of patients with Alzheimer's disease. CNS Drug. Rev. 2002; 8, 159-176. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    44. Darreh-Shori T., Soininen H. Effects of cholinesterase inhibitors on the activities and protein levels of cholinesterases in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with Alzheimer's disease: a review of recent clinical studies. Curr. Alzheimer Res. 2010; 7, 67-73. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    45. Thomsen T., Kewitz H. Selective inhibition of human acetylcholinesterase by galanthamine in vitro and in vivo. Life Sci. 1990; 46, 1553-1558. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    46. Berg L., Andersson C. D., Artursson E., Hornberg A., Tunemalm A. K., Linusson A., Ekstrom F. Targeting acetylcholinesterase: identification of chemical leads by high throughput screening, structure determination and molecular modeling. PLoS One 2011; 6, e26039. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    47. Cheewakriengkrai L., Gauthier S. A 10-year perspective on donepezil. Expert Opin. Pharmacother. 2013; 14 331-338. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    48. Pohanka M. Spectrophotomeric assay of aflatoxin B1 using acetylcholinesterase immobilized on standard microplates. Anal. Lett. 2013; 46, 1306-1315. Go to original source...
    49. Plageman L. R., Pauletti G. M., Skau K. A. Characterization of acetylcholinesterase in Caco-2 cells. Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood) 2002; 227, 480-486. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    50. Zhukovskii Y. G. On establishment of individuality of the choliensterase enzyme in the studied preparation. J. Evol. Biochem. Physiol. 2003; 39, 281-290. Go to original source...
    51. Giacobini E. Cholinesterases: new roles in brain function and in Alzheimer's disease. Neurochem. Res. 2003; 28, 515-522. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    52. Grigoryan H. A., Hambardzumyan A. A., Mkrtchyan M. V., Topuzyan V. O., Halabyan G. P., Asatryan R. S. alpha,beta-Dehydrophenylalanine choline esters, a new class of reversible inhibitors of human acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase. Chem. Biol. Interact. 2008; 171, 108-116. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    53. Tecles F., Ceron J. J. Determination of whole blood cholinesterase in different animal species using specific substrates. Res. Vet. Sci. 2001; 70, 233-238. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    54. Debord J., Laubarie C., Dantoine T. Microcalorimetric study of the inhibition of butyrylcholinesterase by carbamates. Anal. Biochem. 2008; 373, 247-252. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    55. Kamal M. A., Klein P., Luo W., Li, Y., Holloway H. W., Tweedie D., Greig N. H. Kinetics of human serum butyrylcholinesterase inhibition by a novel experimental Alzheimer therapeutic, dihydrobenzodioxepine cymserine. Neurochem. Res. 2008; 33, 745-753. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    56. Nagasawa T., Sagisaki H., Tani Y., Ogatak K. Purification and characterization of butyrylcholine-hydrolyzing enzyme from Pseudomonas polycolor. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1976; 429, 817-827. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    57. Monteiro M., Quintaneiro C., Morgado F., Soares A. M., Guilhermino L. Characterization of the cholinesterases present in head tissues of the estuarine fish Pomatoschistus microps: application to biomonitoring. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 200; 5; 62, 341-347.
    58. Masson P., Froment M. T., Gillon E., Nachon F., Darvesh S., Schopfer L. M. Kinetic analysis of butyrylcholinesterase-catalyzed hydrolysis of acetanilides. Biochim Biophys Acta 2007; 1774, 1139-1147. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    59. Montenegro M. F., Moral-Naranjo M. T., de la Cadena P. M., Campoy F. J., Munoz-Delgado E., Vidal C. J. The level of aryl acylamidase activity displayed by human butyrylcholinesterase depends on its molecular distribution. Chem. Biol. Interact. 2008; 175, 336-339. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    60. Montenegro M. F., Maria T. M., de la Cadena M. P., Campoy F. J., Munoz-Delgado E., Vidal C. J. Human butyrylcholinesterase components differ in aryl acylamidase activity. Biol. Chem. 2008; 389, 425-432. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    61. Pohanka M. Biosensors containing acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase as recognition tools for detection of various compounds. Chem. Pap. 2015; 69, 4-16. Go to original source...
    62. Pohanka M. Butyrylcholinesterase as a biochemical marker, a review. Brat. Med. J. 2013; 114, 726-734. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    63. Pohanka M., Karasova J. Z., Kuca K., Pikula J., Holas O., Korabecny O., Cabal J. Colorimetric dipstick for assay of organophosphate pesticides and nerve agents represented by paraoxon, sarin and VX. Talanta 2010; 81, 621-624. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    64. Bazire A., Gillon E., Lockridge O., Vallet V., Nachon F. The kinetic study of the inhibition of human cholinesterases by demeton-S-methyl shows that cholinesterase-based titration methods are not suitable for this organophosphate. Toxicol. Vitro 2011; 25, 754-759. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    65. Bartling A., Worek F., Szinicz L., Thiermann H. Enzyme-kinetic investigation of different sarin analogues reacting with human acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase. Toxicology 2007; 233, 166-172. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    66. Gabrovska K., Marinov I., Godjevargova T., Portaccio M., Lepore M., Grano V., Diano N., Mita D. G. The influence of the support nature on the kinetics parameters, inhibition constants and reactivation of immobilized acetylcholinesterase. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2008; 43, 339-345. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    67. Ellman G. L., Courtney K. D., Andres V., Jr., Feather-Stone R. M. A new and rapid colorimetric determination of acetylcholinesterase activity. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1961; 7, 88-95. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    68. Pohanka M. Cholinesterases in biorecognition and biosensor construction, a review. Anal. Lett. 2013; 46, 1849-1868. Go to original source...
    69. Eyer P., Worek F., Kiderlen D., Sinko G., Stuglin A., Simeon-Rudolf V., Reiner E. Molar absorption coefficients for the reduced Ellman reagent: reassessment. Anal. Biochem. 2003; 312, 224-227. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    70. Sinko G., Calic M., Bosak A., Kovarik Z. Limitation of the Ellman method: Cholinesterase activity measurement in the presence of oximes. Anal. Biochem. 2007; 370, 223-227. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    71. Zitova A., O'Mahony F. C., Kurochkin I. N., Papkovsky D. B. A simple screening assay for cholinesterase activity and inhibition based on optical oxygen detection Anal. Lett. 2010; 43, 1746-1755. Go to original source...
    72. Evans O. On-line deoxygenation in reductive (and oxidative) amperometric detection: environmental applications in the liquid chromatography of organic peroxides. Analyst 1999; 124, 1811-1816. Go to original source...
    73. No H. Y., Kim Y. A., Lee Y. T., Lee H. S. Cholinesterase-based dipstick assay for the detection of organophosphate and carbamate pesticides. Anal. Chim. Acta 2007; 594, 37-43. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    74. Wu Z. L., Podust M. L. M., Guengerich F. P. Expansion of substrate specificity of cytochrome P450 2A6 by random and site-directed mutagenesis. J. Biol. Chem. 2005; 280, 41090-41100. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    75. Tingfa D., Shiguang Z., Mousheng T. A new micro-detection tube for cholinesterase inhibitors in water. Enivron. Pollut. 1989; 57, 217-222. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    76. Miao Y., He N., Zhu J. J. History and new developments of assay for cholinesterase activity and inhibition. Chem. Rev. 2010; 110, 5216-5234. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    77. Guilbault G. G., Kramer D. N. Resorufin butyrate and indoxyl acetate as fluorogenic substrates for cholinesterase. Anal. Chem. 1965; 37, 120-123. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    78. Pohanka M. Acetylcholinesterase based dipsticks with indoxylacetate as a substrate for assay of organophosphates and carbamates Anal. Lett. 2012; 45, 367-374. Go to original source...
    79. Santarpia L., Grandone I., Contaldo F., Pasanisi F. Butyrylcholinesterase as a prognostic marker: a review of the literature. J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 2013; 4, 31-39. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    80. Lockridge O. Review of human butyrylcholinesterase structure, function, genetic variants, history of use in the clinic, and potential therapeutic uses. Pharmacol. Ther. 2015; 148, 34-46. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    81. Iwasaki T., Yoneda M., Nakajima A., Terauchi Y. Serum butyrylcholinesterase is strongly associated with adiposity, the serum lipid profile and insulin resistance. Intern. Med. 2007; 46, 1633-1639. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    82. Ostergaard D., Viby-Moogensen J., Hanel H. K., Skovgaard L. T. Half-life of plasma cholinesterase. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand. 1988; 32, 266-269. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    83. Tajiri J., Nishizono Y., Fujiyama S., Sagara K., Sato T., Shibata H. Hypercholinesterasemia in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma: a new paraneoplastic syndrome. Gastroenterol Jpn 1983; 18, 137-141. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    84. Lu W. D., Hada T., Fukui K., Imanishi H., Matsuoka N., Iwasaki A., Higashino K. Familial hypocholinesterasemia found in a family and a new confirmed mutation. Intern. Med. 1997; 36, 9-13. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    85. Prellwitz W., Kapp S., Muller D. Comparative methods for the determination of the activity of serumcholinesterases (acylcholin-acyl-hydrolase E.C. 3.1.1.8) and their diagnostical value J. Clin. Chem. Clin. Biochem. 1976; 14, 93-97. Go to original source...
    86. Duran-Ferreras E., Diaz-Narvaez F., Raffo-Marquez M. Chronic hepatic encephalopathy in a patient with primary biliary cirrhosis. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2011; 34, 401-405. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    87. Kemkes-Matthes B., Preissner K. T., Langenscheidt F., Matthes K. J., Muller-Berghaus G. S protein/vitronectin in chronic liver diseases: correlations with serum cholinesterase, coagulation factor X and complement component C3. Eur. J. Haematol. 1987; 39, 161-165. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    88. Kassa J. Review of oximes in the antidotal treatment of poisoning by organophosphorus nerve agents. J. Toxicol.-Clin. Toxicol. 2002; 40, 803-816. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    89. Bajgar J. Organophosphates/nerve agent poisoning: Mechanism of action, diagnosis, prophylaxis, and treatment Adv. Clin. Chem. 2004; 38, 151-216. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    90. Bajgar J. Biological monitoring of exposure to nerve agents. Brit. J. Ind. Med. 1992; 49 648-653. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    91. Pohanka M. Alzheimer's disease and related neurodegenerative disorders: implication and counteracting of melatonin. J. Appl. Biomed. 2011; 9, 185-196. Go to original source...
    92. Hashim Y., Shepherd D., Wiltshire S., Holman R., Levy J. C., Clark A., Cull C. A. Butyrylcholinesterase K variant on chromosome 3 q is associated with Type II diabetes in white Caucasian subjects. Diabetologia 2001; 44, 2227-2230. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    93. Holmes C., Ballard C., Lehmann D., Smith A. D., Beaumont H., Day I. N., Khan M. N., Lovestone S., McCulley M., Morris C. M., Munoz D. G., O'Brien K., Russ C., Del Ser T., Warden D. Rate of progression of cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease: effect of butyrylcholinesterase K gene variation. J. Neurol. Neurosur. Ps. 2005; 76, 640-643. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    94. Kaufman S. E., Donnell R. W., Aiken D. C., Magee C. Prolonged neuromuscular paralysis following rapid-sequence intubation with succinylcholine. Ann. Pharmacother. 2011; 45, e21. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    95. Kalow W., Genest K. A method for the detection of atypical forms of human serum cholinesterase; determination of dibucaine numbers. Can. J. Biochem. Physiol. 1957; 35, 339-346. Go to original source...
    96. Yen T., Nightingale B. N., Burns J. C., Sullivan D. R., Stewart P. M. Butyrylcholinesterase (BCHE) genotyping for post-succinylcholine apnea in an Australian population. Clin. Chem. 2003; 49, 1297-1308. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    97. Pohanka M. Determination of acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase activity without dilution of biological samples. Chem. Pap. 2015; 69, 1044-1049. Go to original source...

    Return to the content


    Czech and Slovak Pharmacy

    Madam, Sir,
    please be aware that the website on which you intend to enter, not the general public because it contains technical information about medicines, including advertisements relating to medicinal products. This information and communication professionals are solely under §2 of the Act n.40/1995 Coll. Is active persons authorized to prescribe or supply (hereinafter expert).
    Take note that if you are not an expert, you run the risk of danger to their health or the health of other persons, if you the obtained information improperly understood or interpreted, and especially advertising which may be part of this site, or whether you used it for self-diagnosis or medical treatment, whether in relation to each other in person or in relation to others.

    I declare:

    1. that I have met the above instruction
    2. I'm an expert within the meaning of the Act n.40/1995 Coll. the regulation of advertising, as amended, and I am aware of the risks that would be a person other than the expert input to these sites exhibited

    No
    Yes

    If your statement is not true, please be aware
    that brings the risk of danger to their health or the health of others.